An updated overview on the resistance and virulence of UPEC

Among infections related to ExPEC pathogens, UTIs caused by UPEC are the most prevalent in children and adults worldwide. The latter pathogenic strains exhibit an extensive set of virulence factors such as adhesins, iron uptake systems, and toxins that provide them with the ability to colonize and invade the urinary tract causing different pathologies. Besides these properties, UPEC strains have been reported to possess multidrug resistance to commonly used antibiotics such as β-lactams, fluoroquinolones, carbapenems, and cephalosporins, which complicate the treatment and demonstrate the need of alternative strategies against these pathogens. Updated strategies include vaccines, plant extracts, probiotics, phage therapy, and others, but they need to be widely evaluated before applying them as a common form of therapy. Finally, it is important to note that epidemiological studies that can identify UPEC are necessary to find the most effective way to avoid spread and infection with resistant strains and combat them with novel, high-efficiency treatments.